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JavaScript

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java (programming language)</a>, <a href="Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese script</a>, or <a href="ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#e0e0e0;">JavaScript</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">Screenshot of JavaScript source code</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Paradigms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Multi-paradigm" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-paradigm">Multi-paradigm</a>: <a href="Event-driven_programming" title="Event-driven programming">event-driven</a>, <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional</a>, <a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a>, <a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">procedural</a>, <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Family</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Designed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> of <a href="Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a> first; then others contributed to <a href="ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> standard</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First appeared</th><td class="infobox-data">4 December 1995 (1995-12-04)<a href="#cite_note-press_release-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">ECMAScript 2024<a href="#cite_note-wikidata-fdaa92a1fc5308e94e5ed782a2024ab0bbc4c072-v20-2">[2]</a>

/ June 2024 (June 2024)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle#Beta" title="Software release life cycle">Preview release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">ECMAScript 2025<a href="#cite_note-wikidata-6351048ad5638805e5935d8ba81b639a34072b65-v20-3">[3]</a>

/ 27 March 2024 (27 March 2024)</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Type_system" title="Type system">Typing discipline</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">Dynamic</a>, <a href="Strong_and_weak_typing" title="Strong and weak typing">weak</a>, <a href="Duck_typing" title="Duck typing">duck</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Memory_management" title="Memory management">Memory management</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">Garbage collected</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Scope_(computer_science)" title="Scope (computer science)">Scope</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Scope_(computer_science)" title="Scope (computer science)">lexical</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extensions</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><code>.js</code> • <code>.mjs</code> • <code>.cjs</code><a href="#cite_note-node.js_ECMAScript_Modules_Specification-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-262/">ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-262/</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Major <a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementations</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a>, <a href="JavaScriptCore" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScriptCore">JavaScriptCore</a>, <a href="SpiderMonkey" title="SpiderMonkey">SpiderMonkey</a>; <a href="Chakra_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Chakra (JavaScript engine)">Chakra</a> (deprecated)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced by</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>,<a href="#cite_note-looklikejava-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a> <a href="Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a>,<a href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a> <a href="Self_(programming_language)" title="Self (programming language)">Self</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="AWK" title="AWK">AWK</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="HyperTalk" title="HyperTalk">HyperTalk</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="ActionScript" title="ActionScript">ActionScript</a>, <a href="ArkTS" title="ArkTS">ArkTS</a>, <a href="AssemblyScript" title="AssemblyScript">AssemblyScript</a>, <a href="CoffeeScript" title="CoffeeScript">CoffeeScript</a>, <a href="Dart_(programming_language)" title="Dart (programming language)">Dart</a>, <a href="Haxe" title="Haxe">Haxe</a>, <a href="JS%2B%2B" title="JS++">JS++</a>, <a href="Opa_(programming_language)" title="Opa (programming language)">Opa</a>, <a href="TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below hlist" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 3px;">

<ul><li> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/JavaScript" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:JavaScript">JavaScript</a> at Wikibooks</li></ul>

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JavaScript (JS)<a href="#cite_note-10">[a]</a> is a <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> and core technology of the <a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, alongside <a href="HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> and <a href="CSS" title="CSS">CSS</a>. Ninety-nine percent of <a href="Website" title="Website">websites</a> use JavaScript on the <a href="Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)">client</a> side for <a href="Web_page" title="Web page">webpage</a> behavior.<a href="#cite_note-deployedstats-11">[10]</a>

<a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">Web browsers</a> have a dedicated <a href="JavaScript_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engine</a> that executes the client <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">code</a>. These engines are also utilized in some <a href="Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a> and a variety of <a href="Application_software" title="Application software">apps</a>. The most popular <a href="Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">runtime system</a> for non-browser usage is <a href="Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a>.

JavaScript is a <a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level</a>, often <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time–compiled</a> language that conforms to the <a href="ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> standard.<a href="#cite_note-tc39-12">[11]</a> It has <a href="Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">dynamic typing</a>, <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">prototype-based</a> <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-orientation</a>, and <a href="First-class_function" title="First-class function">first-class functions</a>. It is <a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">multi-paradigm</a>, supporting <a href="Event-driven_programming" title="Event-driven programming">event-driven</a>, <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional</a>, and <a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a> <a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">programming styles</a>. It has <a href="Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">application programming interfaces</a> (APIs) for working with text, dates, <a href="Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regular expressions</a>, standard <a href="Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structures</a>, and the <a href="Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object Model">Document Object Model</a> (DOM).

The ECMAScript standard does not include any <a href="Input/output" title="Input/output">input/output</a> (I/O), such as <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">networking</a>, <a href="Data_storage" title="Data storage">storage</a>, or <a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">graphics</a> facilities. In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs for I/O.

Although <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and JavaScript are similar in name and <a href="Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a>, the two languages are distinct and differ greatly in design.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_at_Netscape">Creation at Netscape</h3></div>

The first popular <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a> with a <a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a>, <a href="Mosaic_(web_browser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic (web browser)">Mosaic</a>, was released in 1993. The lead developers of Mosaic then founded the <a href="Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a> corporation, which released a more polished browser, <a href="Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Netscape Navigator</a>, in 1994. This quickly became the most-used.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a>

During these formative years of the Web, <a href="Web_page" title="Web page">web pages</a> could only be static, lacking the capability for dynamic behavior after the page was loaded in the browser. There was a desire in the flourishing web development scene to remove this limitation, so in 1995, Netscape decided to add a <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> to Navigator. They pursued two routes to achieve this: collaborating with <a href="Sun_Microsystems" title="Sun Microsystems">Sun Microsystems</a> to embed the <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> language, while also hiring <a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> to embed the <a href="Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a> language.<a href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a>

The goal was a "language for the masses",<a href="#cite_note-EichVideo-14">[13]</a> "to help nonprogrammers create dynamic, interactive <a href="Website" title="Website">Web sites</a>".<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> Netscape management soon decided that the best option was for Eich to devise a new language, with syntax similar to Java and less like Scheme or other extant <a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-looklikejava-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a> Although the new language and its <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a> implementation were called LiveScript when first shipped as part of a Navigator <a href="Beta_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta software">beta</a> in September 1995, the name was changed to JavaScript for the official release in December.<a href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-press_release-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-techvision-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-wired2024-17">[16]</a>

The choice of the JavaScript name has caused confusion, implying that it is directly related to Java. At the time, the <a href="Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">dot-com boom</a> had begun and Java was a popular new language, so Eich considered the JavaScript name a marketing ploy by Netscape.<a href="#cite_note-EichVideo-14">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adoption_by_Microsoft">Adoption by Microsoft</h3></div>

<a href="Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> debuted <a href="Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a> in 1995, leading to a <a href="Browser_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Browser war">browser war</a> with Netscape. On the JavaScript front, Microsoft created its own <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a> called <a href="JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sjsch5-18">[17]</a>

Microsoft first released JScript in 1996, alongside initial support for <a href="CSS" title="CSS">CSS</a> and extensions to <a href="HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a>. Each of these <a href="Implementation" title="Implementation">implementations</a> was noticeably different from their counterparts in <a href="Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Netscape Navigator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-O'Reilly-2001-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> These differences made it difficult for developers to make their websites work well in both browsers, leading to widespread use of "best viewed in Netscape" and "best viewed in Internet Explorer" logos for several years.<a href="#cite_note-O'Reilly-2001-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_rise_of_JScript">The rise of JScript</h3></div>

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<a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> later said of this period: "It's still kind of a <a href="Sidekick" title="Sidekick">sidekick</a> language. It's considered slow or annoying. People do <a href="Pop-up_ad" title="Pop-up ad">pop-ups</a> or those scrolling messages in the old <a href="Status_bar" title="Status bar">status bar</a> at the bottom of your old <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">browser</a>."<a href="#cite_note-EichVideo-14">[13]</a>

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In November 1996, <a href="Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a> submitted JavaScript to <a href="Ecma_International" title="Ecma International">Ecma International</a>, as the starting point for a standard specification that all browser vendors could conform to. This led to the official release of the first <a href="ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> language specification in June 1997.

The standards process continued for a few years, with the release of ECMAScript 2 in June 1998 and ECMAScript 3 in December 1999. Work on ECMAScript 4 began in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-sjsch5-18">[17]</a>

However, the effort to fully standardize the language was undermined by Microsoft gaining an increasingly dominant position in the browser market. By the early 2000s, <a href="Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a>'s market share reached 95%.<a href="#cite_note-searchenginejournal.com-22">[21]</a> This meant that <a href="JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a> became the de facto standard for <a href="Client-side_scripting" class="mw-redirect" title="Client-side scripting">client-side scripting</a> on the Web.

Microsoft initially participated in the standards process and implemented some proposals in its JScript language, but eventually it stopped collaborating on ECMA work. Thus ECMAScript 4 was mothballed.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_and_standardization">Growth and standardization</h3></div>

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<div class="thumbcaption" style="display:table-caption;caption-side:bottom;box-sizing:border-box;">Logo of <a href="Ecma_International" title="Ecma International">Ecma International</a> Technical Committee 39 who is responsible for maintaining the standard </div>

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During the period of <a href="Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a> dominance in the early 2000s, client-side scripting was stagnant. This started to change in 2004, when the successor of Netscape, <a href="Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a>, released the <a href="Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a> browser. Firefox was well received by many, taking significant market share from Internet Explorer.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a>

In 2005, Mozilla joined ECMA International, and work started on the <a href="ECMAScript_for_XML" title="ECMAScript for XML">ECMAScript for XML</a> (E4X) standard. This led to Mozilla working jointly with <a href="Macromedia" title="Macromedia">Macromedia</a> (later acquired by <a href="Adobe_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Adobe Systems">Adobe Systems</a>), who were implementing E4X in their ActionScript 3 language, which was based on an ECMAScript 4 draft. The goal became standardizing ActionScript 3 as the new ECMAScript 4. To this end, Adobe Systems released the <a href="Tamarin_(software)" title="Tamarin (software)">Tamarin</a> implementation as an <a href="Open-source_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source model">open source</a> project. However, Tamarin and ActionScript 3 were too different from established client-side scripting, and without cooperation from Microsoft, ECMAScript 4 never reached fruition.

Meanwhile, very important developments were occurring in open-source communities not affiliated with ECMA work. In 2005, <a href="Jesse_James_Garrett" title="Jesse James Garrett">Jesse James Garrett</a> released a white paper in which he coined the term <a href="Ajax_(programming)" title="Ajax (programming)">Ajax</a> and described a set of technologies, of which JavaScript was the backbone, to create <a href="Web_application" title="Web application">web applications</a> where data can be loaded in the background, avoiding the need for full page reloads. This sparked a renaissance period of JavaScript, spearheaded by open-source libraries and the communities that formed around them. Many new libraries were created, including <a href="JQuery" title="JQuery">jQuery</a>, <a href="Prototype_JavaScript_Framework" title="Prototype JavaScript Framework">Prototype</a>, <a href="Dojo_Toolkit" title="Dojo Toolkit">Dojo Toolkit</a>, and <a href="MooTools" title="MooTools">MooTools</a>.

<a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a> debuted its <a href="Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Chrome</a> browser in 2008, with the <a href="V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a> JavaScript engine that was faster than its competition.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> The key innovation was <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a> (JIT),<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> so other browser vendors needed to overhaul their engines for JIT.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a>

In July 2008, these disparate parties came together for a conference in <a href="Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a>. This led to the eventual agreement in early 2009 to combine all relevant work and drive the language forward. The result was the ECMAScript 5 standard, released in December 2009.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaching_maturity">Reaching maturity</h3></div>

Ambitious work on the language continued for several years, culminating in an extensive collection of additions and refinements being formalized with the publication of <a href="ECMAScript_6" class="mw-redirect" title="ECMAScript 6">ECMAScript 6</a> in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a>

The creation of <a href="Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a> in 2009 by <a href="Ryan_Dahl" title="Ryan Dahl">Ryan Dahl</a> sparked a significant increase in the usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers. Node combines the <a href="V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a> engine, an <a href="Event_loop" title="Event loop">event loop</a>, and <a href="Input/output" title="Input/output">I/O</a> <a href="Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">APIs</a>, thereby providing a stand-alone JavaScript runtime system.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-b3-30">[29]</a> As of 2018, Node had been used by millions of developers,<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> and <a href="Npm_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Npm (software)">npm</a> had the most modules of any <a href="Package_manager" title="Package manager">package manager</a> in the world.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a>

The ECMAScript draft specification is currently maintained openly on <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>,<a href="#cite_note-branscombe-33">[32]</a> and editions are produced via regular annual snapshots.<a href="#cite_note-branscombe-33">[32]</a> Potential revisions to the language are vetted through a comprehensive proposal process.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> Now, instead of edition numbers, developers check the status of upcoming features individually.<a href="#cite_note-branscombe-33">[32]</a>

The current JavaScript ecosystem has many <a href="List_of_JavaScript_libraries" title="List of JavaScript libraries">libraries</a> and <a href="Web_framework" title="Web framework">frameworks</a>, established programming practices, and substantial usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers.<a href="#cite_note-wired2024-17">[16]</a> Plus, with the rise of <a href="Single-page_application" title="Single-page application">single-page applications</a> and other JavaScript-heavy websites, several <a href="Source-to-source_compiler" title="Source-to-source compiler">transpilers</a> have been created to aid the development process.<a href="#cite_note-transpilers-36">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trademark">Trademark</h2></div>

"JavaScript" is a <a href="Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> of <a href="Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle Corporation</a> in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> The trademark was originally issued to <a href="Sun_Microsystems" title="Sun Microsystems">Sun Microsystems</a> on 6 May 1997, and was transferred to Oracle when they acquired Sun in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a>

A letter was circulated in September 2024, spearheaded by <a href="Ryan_Dahl" title="Ryan Dahl">Ryan Dahl</a>, calling on Oracle to free the JavaScript trademark.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> <a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a>, the original creator of JavaScript, was among the over 14,000 signatories who supported the initiative.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Website_client-side_usage">Website client-side usage</h2></div>

JavaScript is the dominant <a href="Client-side" class="mw-redirect" title="Client-side">client-side</a> <a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting language</a> of the Web, with 99% of all <a href="Website" title="Website">websites</a> using it for this purpose.<a href="#cite_note-deployedstats-11">[10]</a> Scripts are embedded in or included from <a href="HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> documents and interact with the <a href="Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object Model">DOM</a>.

All major <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a> have a built-in <a href="JavaScript_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engine</a> that executes the <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">code</a> on the user's device.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_scripted_behavior">Examples of scripted behavior</h3></div>

<ul><li>Loading new <a href="Web_page" title="Web page">web page</a> content without reloading the page, via <a href="Ajax_(programming)" title="Ajax (programming)">Ajax</a> or a <a href="WebSocket" title="WebSocket">WebSocket</a>. For example, <a href="User_(computing)" title="User (computing)">users</a> of <a href="Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> can send and receive messages without leaving the current page.</li>

<li>Web page animations, such as fading objects in and out, resizing, and moving them.</li>

<li>Playing <a href="Browser_game" title="Browser game">browser games</a>.</li>

<li>Controlling the <a href="Media_player_software" title="Media player software">playback</a> of <a href="Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming media</a>.</li>

<li>Generating <a href="Pop-up_ad" title="Pop-up ad">pop-up ads</a> or alert boxes.</li>

<li><a href="Data_validation" title="Data validation">Validating</a> input values of a <a href="Form_(HTML)" class="mw-redirect" title="Form (HTML)">web form</a> before the data is sent to a <a href="Web_server" title="Web server">web server</a>.</li>

<li>Logging data about the user's behavior then sending it to a server. The website owner can use this data for <a href="Web_analytics" title="Web analytics">analytics</a>, <a href="Ad_tracking" title="Ad tracking">ad tracking</a>, and <a href="Personalization" title="Personalization">personalization</a>.</li>

<li>Redirecting a user to another page.</li>

<li>Storing and retrieving data on the user's device, via the <a href="Web_storage" title="Web storage">storage</a> or <a href="Indexed_Database_API" title="Indexed Database API">IndexedDB</a> standards.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Libraries_and_frameworks">Libraries and frameworks</h3></div>

Over 80% of websites use a third-party JavaScript <a href="Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">library</a> or <a href="Web_framework" title="Web framework">web framework</a> as part of their client-side scripting.<a href="#cite_note-lib_usage-42">[41]</a>

<a href="JQuery" title="JQuery">jQuery</a> is by far the most-used.<a href="#cite_note-lib_usage-42">[41]</a> Other notable ones include <a href="Angular_(web_framework)" title="Angular (web framework)">Angular</a>, <a href="Bootstrap_(front-end_framework)" title="Bootstrap (front-end framework)">Bootstrap</a>, <a href="Lodash" title="Lodash">Lodash</a>, <a href="Modernizr" title="Modernizr">Modernizr</a>, <a href="React_(software)" title="React (software)">React</a>, <a href="Underscore.js" title="Underscore.js">Underscore</a>, and <a href="Vue.js" title="Vue.js">Vue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lib_usage-42">[41]</a> Multiple options can be used in conjunction, such as jQuery and Bootstrap.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a>

However, the term "Vanilla JS" was coined for websites not using any libraries or frameworks at all, instead relying entirely on standard JavaScript functionality.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_usage">Other usage</h2></div>

The use of JavaScript has expanded beyond its <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a> roots. <a href="JavaScript_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engines</a> are now embedded in a variety of other software systems, both for <a href="Server-side" class="mw-redirect" title="Server-side">server-side</a> website deployments and non-browser <a href="Application_software" title="Application software">applications</a>.

Initial attempts at promoting server-side JavaScript usage were <a href="Netscape_Enterprise_Server" class="mw-redirect" title="Netscape Enterprise Server">Netscape Enterprise Server</a> and <a href="Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s <a href="Internet_Information_Services" title="Internet Information Services">Internet Information Services</a>,<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> but they were small niches.<a href="#cite_note-2009server-47">[46]</a> Server-side usage eventually started to grow in the late 2000s, with the creation of <a href="Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a> and <a href="List_of_server-side_JavaScript_implementations" title="List of server-side JavaScript implementations">other approaches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2009server-47">[46]</a>

<a href="Electron_(software_framework)" title="Electron (software framework)">Electron</a>, <a href="Apache_Cordova" title="Apache Cordova">Cordova</a>, <a href="React_Native" title="React Native">React Native</a>, and other <a href="Application_framework" title="Application framework">application frameworks</a> have been used to create many applications with behavior implemented in JavaScript. Other non-browser applications include <a href="Adobe_Acrobat" title="Adobe Acrobat">Adobe Acrobat</a> support for scripting <a href="PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a> documents<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> and <a href="GNOME_Shell" title="GNOME Shell">GNOME Shell</a> extensions written in JavaScript.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a>

<a href="Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle</a> used to provide <a href="Nashorn_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Nashorn (JavaScript engine)"> Nashorn</a>, a JavaScript interpreter, as part of their <a href="JDK" class="mw-redirect" title="JDK">Java Development Kit (JDK)</a> API library along with jjs a command line interpreter as of JDK version 8. It was removed in JDK 15. As a replacement Oracle offered GraalJS which can also be used with the <a href="OpenJDK" title="OpenJDK">OpenJDK</a> which allows one to create and reference Java objects in JavaScript code and add runtime scripting in JavaScript to applications written in Java.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a>

JavaScript has been used in some <a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded systems</a>, usually by leveraging Node.js.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Execution">Execution</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="JavaScript_engine">JavaScript engine</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="List_of_JavaScript_engines" title="List of JavaScript engines">List of JavaScript engines</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_JavaScript_engines&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

The first <a href="Software_engine" title="Software engine">engines</a> for JavaScript were mere <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreters</a> of the <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>, but all relevant modern engines use <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a> for improved performance.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> JavaScript engines are typically developed by <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a> vendors, and every major browser has one. In a browser, the JavaScript engine runs in concert with the <a href="Browser_engine" title="Browser engine">rendering engine</a> via the <a href="Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object Model">Document Object Model</a> and <a href="Web_IDL" title="Web IDL">Web IDL</a> bindings.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> However, the use of JavaScript engines is not limited to browsers; for example, the <a href="V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8 engine</a> is a core component of the <a href="Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a> <a href="Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">runtime system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-List_of_JavaScript_engines_v8_doc-59">[58]</a> They are also called <a href="ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> engines, after the official name of the specification. With the advent of <a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a>, some engines can also execute this code in the same <a href="Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandbox</a> as regular JavaScript code.<a href="#cite_note-List_of_JavaScript_engines_Wasm-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-List_of_JavaScript_engines_v8_doc-59">[58]</a></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Runtime_system">Runtime system</h3></div>

A JavaScript engine must be embedded within a <a href="Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">runtime system</a> (such as a <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a> or a standalone system) to enable scripts to interact with the broader environment. The runtime system includes the necessary APIs for <a href="Input/output" title="Input/output">input/output</a> operations, such as <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">networking</a>, <a href="Data_storage" title="Data storage">storage</a>, and <a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">graphics</a>, and provides the ability to import scripts.

JavaScript is a single-<a href="Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">threaded</a> language. The runtime processes <a href="Message_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Message (computer science)">messages</a> from a <a href="Queue_(abstract_data_type)" title="Queue (abstract data type)">queue</a> one at a time, and it calls a <a href="Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">function</a> associated with each new message, creating a <a href="Call_stack" title="Call stack">call stack</a> frame with the function's <a href="Parameter_(computer_programming)" title="Parameter (computer programming)">arguments</a> and <a href="Local_variable" title="Local variable">local variables</a>. The call stack shrinks and grows based on the function's needs. When the call stack is empty upon function completion, JavaScript proceeds to the next message in the queue. This is called the <a href="Event_loop" title="Event loop">event loop</a>, described as "run to completion" because each message is fully processed before the next message is considered. However, the language's <a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">concurrency model</a> describes the event loop as <a href="Asynchronous_I/O" title="Asynchronous I/O">non-blocking</a>: program I/O is performed using <a href="Event_(computing)" title="Event (computing)">events</a> and <a href="Callback_(computer_programming)" title="Callback (computer programming)">callback functions</a>. This means, for example, that JavaScript can process a mouse click while waiting for a database query to return information.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a>

The notable standalone runtimes are <a href="Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a>, <a href="Deno_(software)" title="Deno (software)">Deno</a>, and <a href="Bun_(software)" title="Bun (software)">Bun</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2></div>

The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations unless explicitly specified otherwise. The number of cited reserved words including keywords is 50-60 and varies depending on the implementation.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperative_and_structured">Imperative and structured</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured programming</a></div>

JavaScript supports much of the <a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a> syntax from <a href="C_(computer_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="C (computer language)">C</a> (e.g., <code>if</code> statements, <code>while</code> loops, <code>switch</code> statements, <code>do while</code> loops, etc.). One partial exception is <a href="Scope_(computer_science)" title="Scope (computer science)">scoping</a>: originally JavaScript only had <a href="Function_scoping" class="mw-redirect" title="Function scoping">function scoping</a> with <code>var</code>; <a href="Block_scoping" class="mw-redirect" title="Block scoping">block scoping</a> was added in ECMAScript 2015 with the keywords <code>let</code> and <code><a href="Const_(computer_programming)" title="Const (computer programming)">const</a></code>. Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between <a href="Expression_(computer_science)" title="Expression (computer science)">expressions</a> and <a href="Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer science)">statements</a>. One syntactic difference from C is <a href="Defensive_semicolon" class="mw-redirect" title="Defensive semicolon">automatic semicolon insertion</a>, which allow semicolons (which terminate statements) to be omitted.<a href="#cite_note-Flanagan2006-62">[61]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weakly_typed">Weakly typed</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Weakly_typed" class="mw-redirect" title="Weakly typed">Weakly typed</a></div>

JavaScript is <a href="Strong_and_weak_typing" title="Strong and weak typing">weakly typed</a>, which means certain types are implicitly cast depending on the operation used.<a href="#cite_note-casting_rules-63">[62]</a>

<ul><li>The binary <code>+</code> operator casts both operands to a string unless both operands are numbers. This is because the addition operator doubles as a concatenation operator</li>

<li>The binary <code>-</code> operator always casts both operands to a number</li>

<li>Both unary operators (<code>+</code>, <code>-</code>) always cast the operand to a number. However, <code>+</code> always casts to <code>Number</code> (<a href="Double-precision_floating-point_format" title="Double-precision floating-point format">binary64</a>) while <code>-</code> preserves <code>BigInt</code> (<a href="Arbitrary-precision_arithmetic" title="Arbitrary-precision arithmetic">integer</a>)<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a></li></ul>

Values are cast to strings like the following:<a href="#cite_note-casting_rules-63">[62]</a>

<ul><li>Strings are left as-is</li>

<li>Numbers are converted to their string representation</li>

<li>Arrays have their elements cast to strings after which they are joined by commas (<code>,</code>)</li>

<li>Other objects are converted to the string <code>[object Object]</code> where <code>Object</code> is the name of the constructor of the object</li></ul>

Values are cast to numbers by casting to strings and then casting the strings to numbers. These processes can be modified by defining <code>toString</code> and <code>valueOf</code> functions on the <a href="#Object-orientation_(prototype-based)">prototype</a> for string and number casting respectively.

JavaScript has received criticism for the way it implements these conversions as the complexity of the rules can be mistaken for inconsistency.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-casting_rules-63">[62]</a> For example, when adding a number to a string, the number will be cast to a string before performing concatenation, but when subtracting a number from a string, the string is cast to a number before performing subtraction.

<caption>JavaScript type conversions

</caption>

<th>left operand

</th>

<th>operator

</th>

<th>right operand

</th>

<th>result

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>[]</code> (empty array)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>[]</code> (empty array)

</td>

<td><code>""</code> (empty string)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>[]</code> (empty array)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>{}</code> (empty object)

</td>

<td><code>"[object Object]"</code> (string)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>false</code> (boolean)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>[]</code> (empty array)

</td>

<td><code>"false"</code> (string)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>"123"</code>(string)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>1</code> (number)

</td>

<td><code>"1231"</code> (string)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>"123"</code> (string)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>1</code> (number)

</td>

<td><code>122</code> (number)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>"123"</code> (string)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>"abc"</code> (string)

</td>

<td><code><a href="NaN" title="NaN">NaN</a></code> (number)

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Often also mentioned is <code>{} + []</code> resulting in <code>0</code> (number). This is misleading: the <code>{}</code> is interpreted as an empty code block instead of an empty object, and the empty array is cast to a number by the remaining unary <code>+</code> operator. If the expression is wrapped in parentheses - <code>({} + [])</code> – the curly brackets are interpreted as an empty object and the result of the expression is <code>"[object Object]"</code> as expected.<a href="#cite_note-casting_rules-63">[62]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynamic">Dynamic</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Dynamic_programming" title="Dynamic programming">Dynamic programming</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Typing">Typing</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">Dynamic typing</a></div>

JavaScript is <a href="Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">dynamically typed</a> like most other <a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting languages</a>. A <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">type</a> is associated with a <a href="Value_(computer_science)" title="Value (computer science)">value</a> rather than an expression. For example, a <a href="Variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable (programming)">variable</a> initially bound to a number may be reassigned to a <a href="String_(computer_science)" title="String (computer science)">string</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of objects, including <a href="Duck_typing" title="Duck typing">duck typing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlanagan2006176–178-67">[66]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Run-time_evaluation">Run-time evaluation</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Eval" title="Eval">eval</a></div>

JavaScript includes an <code><a href="Eval" title="Eval">eval</a></code> function that can execute statements provided as strings at run-time.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Object-orientation_(prototype-based)">Object-orientation (prototype-based)</h3></div>

Prototypal inheritance in JavaScript is described by <a href="Douglas_Crockford" title="Douglas Crockford">Douglas Crockford</a> as:

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">You make prototype objects, and then ... make new instances. Objects are mutable in JavaScript, so we can augment the new instances, giving them new fields and methods. These can then act as prototypes for even newer objects. We don't need classes to make lots of similar objects... Objects inherit from objects. What could be more object oriented than that?<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a>

</blockquote>

In JavaScript, an <a href="Object_(computer_science)" title="Object (computer science)">object</a> is an <a href="Associative_array" title="Associative array">associative array</a>, augmented with a prototype (see below); each key provides the name for an object <a href="Property_(programming)" title="Property (programming)">property</a>, and there are two syntactical ways to specify such a name: dot notation (<code>obj.x = 10</code>) and bracket notation (<code>obj["x"] = 10</code>). A property may be added, rebound, or deleted at run-time. Most <a href="Property_(programming)" title="Property (programming)">properties</a> of an object (and any property that belongs to an object's prototype inheritance chain) can be enumerated using a <code>for...in</code> loop.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prototypes">Prototypes</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based programming</a></div>

JavaScript uses <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">prototypes</a> where many other object-oriented languages use <a href="Class_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Class (computer science)">classes</a> for <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> but it's still possible to simulate most class-based features with the prototype system.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> Additionally, <a href="ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript version 6</a> (released June 2015) introduced the keywords class, extends and super, which serve as syntactic sugar to abstract the underlying prototypal inheritance system with a more conventional interface. Constructors are declared by specifying a method named constructor, and all classes are automatically subclasses of the base class Object, similarly to Java. <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>class Person {

constructor(name) {

this.name = name;

}

}

class Student extends Person {

constructor(name, id) {

super(name);

this.id = id;

}

}

const bob = new Student("Robert", 12345);

console.log(bob.name); // Robert

</pre></div>Though the underlying object mechanism is still based on prototypes, the newer syntax is similar to other object oriented languages. Private variables are declared by prefixing the field name with a <a href="Number_sign" title="Number sign">number sign</a> (#), and <a href="Polymorphism_(computer_science)" title="Polymorphism (computer science)">polymorphism</a> is not directly supported, although it can be emulated by manually calling different functions depending on the number and type of arguments provided.<a href="#cite_note-JavaScriptNext-71">[70]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Functions_as_object_constructors">Functions as object constructors</h4></div>

Functions double as object constructors, along with their typical role. Prefixing a function call with new will create an instance of a prototype, inheriting properties and methods from the constructor (including properties from the <code>Object</code> prototype).<a href="#cite_note-Haverbeke2024-72">[71]</a> ECMAScript 5 offers the <code>Object.create</code> method, allowing explicit creation of an instance without automatically inheriting from the <code>Object</code> prototype (older environments can assign the prototype to <code>null</code>).<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> The constructor's <code>prototype</code> property determines the object used for the new object's internal prototype. New methods can be added by modifying the prototype of the function used as a constructor.<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>// This code is completely equivalent to the previous snippet

function Person(name) {

}

function Student(name, id) {

Person.call(this, name);

}

var bob = new Student("Robert", 12345);

</pre></div>JavaScript's built-in classes, such as <code>Array</code> and <code>Object</code>, also have prototypes that can be modified. However, it's generally considered bad practice to <a href="Monkey_patch" title="Monkey patch">modify built-in objects</a>, because third-party code may use or inherit methods and properties from these objects, and may not expect the prototype to be modified.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Functions_as_methods">Functions as methods</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Method_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Method (computer science)">Method (computer science)</a></div>

Unlike in many object-oriented languages, in JavaScript there is no distinction between a function definition and a <a href="Method_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Method (computer science)">method</a> definition. Rather, the distinction occurs during function calling. When a function is called as a method of an object, the function's local this keyword is bound to that object for that invocation.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional">Functional</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional programming</a></div>

JavaScript <a href="Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">functions</a> are <a href="First-class_function" title="First-class function">first-class</a>; a function is considered to be an object.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> As such, a function may have properties and methods, such as <code>.call()</code> and <code>.bind()</code>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lexical_closure">Lexical closure</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Closure_(computer_programming)" title="Closure (computer programming)">Closure (computer programming)</a></div>

A nested function is a function defined within another function. It is created each time the outer function is invoked.

In addition, each nested function forms a <a href="Closure_(computer_programming)" title="Closure (computer programming)">lexical closure</a>: the <a href="Scope_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scope (programming)">lexical scope</a> of the outer function (including any constant, local variable, or argument value) becomes part of the internal state of each inner function object, even after execution of the outer function concludes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlanagan2006141-77">[76]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anonymous_function">Anonymous function</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a></div>

JavaScript also supports <a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">anonymous functions</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delegative">Delegative</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Delegation_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Delegation (object-oriented programming)">Delegation (object-oriented programming)</a></div>

JavaScript supports implicit and explicit <a href="Delegation_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Delegation (object-oriented programming)">delegation</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Functions_as_roles_(Traits_and_Mixins)">Functions as roles (Traits and Mixins)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Role-oriented programming</a>, <a href="Traits_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traits (computer science)">Traits (computer science)</a>, and <a href="Mixin" title="Mixin">Mixin</a></div>

JavaScript natively supports various function-based implementations of <a href="Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Role</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> patterns like <a href="Traits_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traits (computer science)">Traits</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> and <a href="Mixin" title="Mixin">Mixins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> Such a function defines additional behavior by at least one method bound to the <code>this</code> keyword within its <code>function</code> body. A Role then has to be delegated explicitly via <code>call</code> or <code>apply</code> to objects that need to feature additional behavior that is not shared via the prototype chain.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Object_composition_and_inheritance">Object composition and inheritance</h4></div>

Whereas explicit function-based delegation does cover <a href="Object_composition" title="Object composition">composition</a> in JavaScript, implicit delegation already happens every time the prototype chain is walked in order to, e.g., find a method that might be related to but is not directly owned by an object. Once the method is found it gets called within this object's context. Thus <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a> in JavaScript is covered by a delegation automatism that is bound to the prototype property of constructor functions.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zero-based_numbering">Zero-based numbering</h4></div>

JavaScript is a <a href="Zero-based_numbering#Usage_in_programming_languages" title="Zero-based numbering">zero-index</a> language.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Variadic_functions">Variadic functions</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Variadic_function" title="Variadic function">Variadic function</a></div>

An indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function. The function can access them through <a href="Formal_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal parameter">formal parameters</a> and also through the local <code>arguments</code> object. <a href="Variadic_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Variadic functions">Variadic functions</a> can also be created by using the <code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Function/bind">bind</a></code> method.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Array_and_object_literals">Array and object literals</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Associative_arrays" class="mw-redirect" title="Associative arrays">Associative arrays</a> and <a href="Object_literal" class="mw-redirect" title="Object literal">Object literal</a></div>

Like in many scripting languages, arrays and objects (<a href="Associative_arrays" class="mw-redirect" title="Associative arrays">associative arrays</a> in other languages) can each be created with a succinct shortcut syntax. In fact, these <a href="Object_literal" class="mw-redirect" title="Object literal">literals</a> form the basis of the <a href="JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a> data format.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regular_expressions">Regular expressions</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">Regular expression</a></div>

JavaScript supports <a href="Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regular expressions</a> for text searches and manipulation.<a href="#cite_note-Haverbeke2024-72">[71]</a>: 139

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Promises">Promises</h5></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Futures_and_promises" title="Futures and promises">Futures and promises</a></div>

A built-in Promise object provides functionality for handling promises and associating handlers with an asynchronous action's eventual result. JavaScript supplies combinator methods, which allow developers to combine multiple JavaScript promises and do operations based on different scenarios. The methods introduced are: Promise.race, Promise.all, Promise.allSettled and Promise.any.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Async/await">Async/await</h5></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Async/await" title="Async/await">Async/await</a></div>

Async/await allows an asynchronous, non-blocking function to be structured in a way similar to an ordinary synchronous function. Asynchronous, non-blocking code can be written, with minimal overhead, structured similarly to traditional synchronous, blocking code.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vendor-specific_extensions">Vendor-specific extensions</h3></div>

Historically, some <a href="JavaScript_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engines</a> supported these non-standard features:

<ul><li><a href="List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">array comprehensions</a> and generator expressions (like Python)</li>

<li>concise function expressions (<code>function(args) expr</code>; this experimental syntax predated arrow functions)</li>

<li><a href="ECMAScript_for_XML" title="ECMAScript for XML">ECMAScript for XML</a> (E4X), an extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScript (unsupported in Firefox since version 21<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a>)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="JavaScript_syntax" title="JavaScript syntax">JavaScript syntax</a></div>

<a href="Variable_(computer_science)" title="Variable (computer science)">Variables</a> in JavaScript can be defined using either the <code>var</code>,<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> <code>let</code><a href="#cite_note-moz_let-84">[83]</a> or <code>const</code><a href="#cite_note-moz_const-85">[84]</a> keywords. Variables defined without keywords will be defined at the global scope.

Arrow functions were first introduced in <a href="ECMAScript#6th_Edition_–_ECMAScript_2015" title="ECMAScript">6th Edition – ECMAScript 2015</a>. They shorten the syntax for writing functions in JavaScript. Arrow functions are anonymous, so a variable is needed to refer to them in order to invoke them after their creation, unless surrounded by parenthesis and executed immediately.

Here is an example of JavaScript syntax.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>// Declares a function-scoped variable named `x`, and implicitly assigns the

// special value `undefined` to it. Variables without value are automatically

// set to undefined.

// var is generally considered bad practice and let and const are usually preferred.

var x;

// Variables can be manually set to `undefined` like so

let x2 = undefined;

// Declares a block-scoped variable named `y`, and implicitly sets it to

// `undefined`. The `let` keyword was introduced in ECMAScript 2015.

let y;

// Declares a block-scoped, un-reassignable variable named `z`, and sets it to

// a string literal. The `const` keyword was also introduced in ECMAScript 2015,

// and must be explicitly assigned to.

// The keyword `const` means constant, hence the variable cannot be reassigned

// as the value is `constant`.

const z = "this value cannot be reassigned!";

// Declares a global-scoped variable and assigns 3. This is generally considered

// bad practice, and will not work if strict mode is on.

t = 3;

// Declares a variable named `myNumber`, and assigns a number literal (the value

// `2`) to it.

let myNumber = 2;

// Reassigns `myNumber`, setting it to a string literal (the value `"foo"`).

// JavaScript is a dynamically-typed language, so this is legal.

myNumber = "foo";

</pre></div>

Note the <a href="Comment_(computer_programming)" title="Comment (computer programming)">comments</a> in the examples above, all of which were preceded with two <a href="Slash_(punctuation)" title="Slash (punctuation)">forward slashes</a>.

More examples can be found at the <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/JavaScript/Syntax_examples" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:JavaScript/Syntax examples">Wikibooks page on JavaScript syntax examples</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Security">Security</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Browser_security" title="Browser security">Browser security</a></div>

JavaScript and the <a href="Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object Model">DOM</a> provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver scripts to run on a client computer via the Web. Browser authors minimize this risk using two restrictions. First, scripts run in a <a href="Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandbox</a> in which they can only perform Web-related actions, not general-purpose programming tasks like creating files. Second, scripts are constrained by the <a href="Same-origin_policy" title="Same-origin policy">same-origin policy</a>: scripts from one website do not have access to information such as usernames, passwords, or cookies sent to another site. Most JavaScript-related security bugs are breaches of either the same origin policy or the sandbox.

There are subsets of general JavaScript—ADsafe, Secure ECMAScript (SES)—that provide greater levels of security, especially on code created by third parties (such as advertisements).<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> Closure Toolkit is another project for safe embedding and isolation of third-party JavaScript and HTML.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a>

<a href="Content_Security_Policy" title="Content Security Policy">Content Security Policy</a> is the main intended method of ensuring that only trusted code is executed on a Web page.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cross-site_scripting">Cross-site scripting</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cross-site_scripting" title="Cross-site scripting">Cross-site scripting</a></div>

A common JavaScript-related security problem is <a href="Cross-site_scripting" title="Cross-site scripting">cross-site scripting</a> (XSS), a violation of the <a href="Same-origin_policy" title="Same-origin policy">same-origin policy</a>. XSS vulnerabilities occur when an attacker can cause a target Website, such as an online banking website, to include a malicious script in the webpage presented to a victim. The script in this example can then access the banking application with the privileges of the victim, potentially disclosing secret information or transferring money without the victim's authorization. One important solution to XSS vulnerabilities is <a href="HTML_sanitization" title="HTML sanitization">HTML sanitization</a>.

Some browsers include partial protection against reflected XSS attacks, in which the attacker provides a URL including malicious script. However, even users of those browsers are vulnerable to other XSS attacks, such as those where the malicious code is stored in a database. Only correct design of Web applications on the server-side can fully prevent XSS.

XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser authors.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cross-site_request_forgery">Cross-site request forgery</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cross-site_request_forgery" title="Cross-site request forgery">Cross-site request forgery</a></div>

Another cross-site vulnerability is <a href="Cross-site_request_forgery" title="Cross-site request forgery">cross-site request forgery</a> (CSRF). In CSRF, code on an attacker's site tricks the victim's browser into taking actions the user did not intend at a target site (like transferring money at a bank). When target sites rely solely on cookies for request authentication, requests originating from code on the attacker's site can carry the same valid login credentials of the initiating user. In general, the solution to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden form field, and not only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effects. Checking the HTTP Referrer header can also help.

"JavaScript hijacking" is a type of CSRF attack in which a <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr"><script></code> tag on an attacker's site exploits a page on the victim's site that returns private information such as <a href="JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a> or JavaScript. Possible solutions include:

<ul><li>requiring an authentication token in the <a href="POST_(HTTP)" title="POST (HTTP)">POST</a> and <a href="GET_(HTTP)" class="mw-redirect" title="GET (HTTP)">GET</a> parameters for any response that returns private information.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misplaced_trust_in_the_client">Misplaced trust in the client</h3></div>

Developers of client-server applications must recognize that untrusted clients may be under the control of attackers. The author of an application should not assume that their JavaScript code will run as intended (or at all) because any secret embedded in the code could be extracted by a determined adversary. Some implications are:

<ul><li>Website authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates because the raw source code must be sent to the client. The code can be <a href="Obfuscated_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Obfuscated code">obfuscated</a>, but obfuscation can be reverse-engineered.</li>

<li>JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security. If a site verifies that the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invalid characters out of fields that should only contain numbers, it must do so on the server, not only the client.</li>

<li>Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript cannot be relied on to prevent operations such as right-clicking on an image to save it.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a></li>

<li>It is considered very bad practice to embed sensitive information such as passwords in JavaScript because it can be extracted by an attacker.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a></li>

<li><a href="Prototype_pollution" title="Prototype pollution">Prototype pollution</a> is a runtime vulnerability in which attackers can overwrite arbitrary properties in an object's prototype.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misplaced_trust_in_developers">Misplaced trust in developers</h3></div>

Package management systems such as <a href="Npm_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Npm (software)">npm</a> and Bower are popular with JavaScript developers. Such systems allow a developer to easily manage their program's dependencies upon other developers' program libraries. Developers trust that the maintainers of the libraries will keep them secure and up to date, but that is not always the case. A vulnerability has emerged because of this blind trust. Relied-upon libraries can have new releases that cause bugs or vulnerabilities to appear in all programs that rely upon the libraries. Inversely, a library can go unpatched with known vulnerabilities out in the wild. In a study done looking over a sample of 133,000 websites, researchers found 37% of the websites included a library with at least one known vulnerability.<a href="#cite_note-jslibs-92">[91]</a> "The median lag between the oldest library version used on each website and the newest available version of that library is 1,177 days in ALEXA, and development of some libraries still in active use ceased years ago."<a href="#cite_note-jslibs-92">[91]</a> Another possibility is that the maintainer of a library may remove the library entirely. This occurred in March 2016 when Azer Koçulu removed his repository from npm. This caused tens of thousands of programs and websites depending upon his libraries to break.<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Browser_and_plugin_coding_errors">Browser and plugin coding errors</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Buffer_overflow" title="Buffer overflow">Buffer overflow</a></div>

JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some of which may have flaws such as <a href="Buffer_overflow" title="Buffer overflow">buffer overflows</a>. These flaws can allow attackers to write scripts that would run any code they wish on the user's system. This code is not by any means limited to another JavaScript application. For example, a buffer overrun exploit can allow an attacker to gain access to the operating system's <a href="API" title="API">API</a> with superuser privileges.

These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox,<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> Internet Explorer,<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> and Safari.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a>

Plugins, such as video players, <a href="Adobe_Flash#Flash_client_security" title="Adobe Flash">Adobe Flash</a>, and the wide range of <a href="ActiveX" title="ActiveX">ActiveX</a> controls enabled by default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have flaws exploitable via JavaScript (such flaws have been exploited in the past).<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a>

In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as buffer overflows by running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> <a href="Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Google Chrome</a> similarly confines its page renderers to their own "<a href="Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandbox</a>".

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sandbox_implementation_errors">Sandbox implementation errors</h3></div>

Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside the sandbox, with the privileges necessary to, for example, create or delete files. Such privileges are not intended to be granted to code from the Web.

Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the Web has played a role in vulnerabilities in both Internet Explorer<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> and Firefox.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> In Windows XP Service Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's privileges in Internet Explorer.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a>

<a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to be launched as general-purpose, non-sandboxed programs (see: <a href="Windows_Script_Host" title="Windows Script Host">Windows Script Host</a>). This makes JavaScript (like <a href="VBScript" title="VBScript">VBScript</a>) a theoretically viable vector for a <a href="Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horse</a>, although JavaScript Trojan horses are uncommon in practice.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hardware_vulnerabilities">Hardware vulnerabilities</h3></div>

In 2015, a JavaScript-based proof-of-concept implementation of a <a href="Rowhammer" class="mw-redirect" title="Rowhammer">rowhammer</a> attack was described in a paper by security researchers.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a>

In 2017, a JavaScript-based attack via browser was demonstrated that could bypass <a href="Address_space_layout_randomization" title="Address space layout randomization">ASLR</a>. It is called "ASLR⊕Cache" or AnC.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a>

In 2018, the paper that announced the <a href="Spectre_(security_vulnerability)" title="Spectre (security vulnerability)">Spectre</a> attacks against Speculative Execution in Intel and other processors included a JavaScript implementation.<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_tools">Development tools</h2></div>

Important tools have evolved with the language.

<ul><li>Every major web browser has built-in <a href="Web_development_tools" title="Web development tools">web development tools</a>, including a JavaScript <a href="Debugger" title="Debugger">debugger</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Static_program_analysis" title="Static program analysis">Static program analysis</a> tools, such as <a href="ESLint" title="ESLint">ESLint</a> and <a href="JSLint" title="JSLint">JSLint</a>, scan JavaScript code for conformance to a set of standards and guidelines.</li>

<li>Some browsers have built-in <a href="Profiling_(computer_programming)" title="Profiling (computer programming)">profilers</a>. Stand-alone profiling libraries have also been created, such as benchmark.js and jsbench.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-113">[112]</a></li>

<li>Many <a href="Text_editor" title="Text editor">text editors</a> have syntax highlighting support for JavaScript code.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_technologies">Related technologies</h2></div>

A common misconception is that JavaScript is directly related to <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>. Both indeed have a C-like syntax (the C language being their most immediate common ancestor language). They are also typically <a href="Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandboxed</a>, and JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standard library in mind. In particular, all Java keywords were reserved in original JavaScript, JavaScript's standard library follows Java's naming conventions, and JavaScript's <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">Math</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">Date</code> objects are based on classes from Java 1.0.<a href="#cite_note-popularity-114">[113]</a>

Both languages first appeared in 1995, but Java was developed by <a href="James_Gosling" title="James Gosling">James Gosling</a> of Sun Microsystems and JavaScript by <a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> of Netscape Communications.

The differences between the two languages are more prominent than their similarities. Java has <a href="Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">static typing</a>, while JavaScript's typing is <a href="Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">dynamic</a>. Java is loaded from <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiled</a> bytecode, while JavaScript is loaded as human-readable source code. Java's objects are <a href="Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">class-based</a>, while JavaScript's are <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">prototype-based</a>. Finally, Java did not support functional programming until Java 8, while JavaScript has done so from the beginning, being influenced by <a href="Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a>.

<a href="JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a> is a data format derived from JavaScript; hence the name JavaScript Object Notation. It is a widely used format supported by many other programming languages.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transpilers">Transpilers</h3></div>

Many websites are JavaScript-heavy, so <a href="Transpiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpiler">transpilers</a> have been created to convert code written in other languages, which can aid the development process.<a href="#cite_note-transpilers-36">[35]</a>

<a href="TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a> and <a href="CoffeeScript" title="CoffeeScript">CoffeeScript</a> are two notable languages that transpile to JavaScript.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</h3></div>

<a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a> is a newer language with a <a href="Bytecode" title="Bytecode">bytecode</a> format designed to complement JavaScript, especially the performance-critical portions of <a href="Web_page" title="Web page">web page</a> scripts. All of the major <a href="JavaScript_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engines</a> support WebAssembly,<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> which runs in the same <a href="Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandbox</a> as regular JavaScript code.

<a href="Asm.js" title="Asm.js">asm.js</a> is a subset of JavaScript that served as the forerunner of WebAssembly.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> /ˈdʒɑːvəskrɪpt/ <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/3\/3e\/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Flame%2C_not_lame-JavaScript.wav\/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Flame%2C_not_lame-JavaScript.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-JavaScript.wav"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3e/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Flame%2C_not_lame-JavaScript.wav/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Flame%2C_not_lame-JavaScript.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a>ⓘ

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="ECMAScript#External_links" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript Specification Documents</a></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFFlanagan2020" class="citation book cs1">Flanagan, David (2020). JavaScript: The Definitive Guide (7th ed.). Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-491-95202-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHaverbeke2024" class="citation book cs1">Haverbeke, Marijn (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eloquentjavascript.net/Eloquent_JavaScript.pdf">Eloquent JavaScript</a> (PDF) (4th ed.). San Francisco: <a href="No_Starch_Press" title="No Starch Press">No Starch Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-71850-411-0</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250312193854/https://eloquentjavascript.net/Eloquent_JavaScript.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2025.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZakas2014" class="citation book cs1">Zakas, Nicholas (2014). Principles of Object-Oriented JavaScript (1st ed.). No Starch Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1593275402</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://javascript.info/">The Modern JavaScript Tutorial</a>. A community maintained continuously updated collection of tutorials on the entirety of the language.</li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pldi21.org/prerecorded_hopl.12.html">"JavaScript: The First 20 Years"</a>. Retrieved 6 February 2022.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="JavaScript497" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Static_program_analysis" title="Static program analysis">Code analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ESLint" title="ESLint">ESLint</a></li>

<li><a href="JSHint" title="JSHint">JSHint</a></li>

<li><a href="JSLint" title="JSLint">JSLint</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Subset" title="Subset">Supersets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ArkTS" title="ArkTS">ArkTS</a></li>

<li><a href="TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Source-to-source_compiler" title="Source-to-source compiler">Transpilers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="AtScript" title="AtScript">AtScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Babel_(transcompiler)" title="Babel (transcompiler)">Babel</a></li>

<li><a href="ClojureScript" class="mw-redirect" title="ClojureScript">ClojureScript</a></li>

<li><a href="CoffeeScript" title="CoffeeScript">CoffeeScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Emscripten" title="Emscripten">Emscripten</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Closure_Compiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Google Closure Compiler">Google Closure Compiler</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Web_Toolkit" title="Google Web Toolkit">Google Web Toolkit</a></li>

<li><a href="LiveScript_(programming_language)" title="LiveScript (programming language)">LiveScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Morfik" title="Morfik">Morfik</a></li>

<li><a href="PureScript" title="PureScript">PureScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Reason_(programming_language)" title="Reason (programming language)">Reason</a></li>

<li><a href="WebSharper" title="WebSharper">WebSharper</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="JavaScript_library" title="JavaScript library">JavaScript library</a></li>

<li><a href="JavaScript_syntax" title="JavaScript syntax">JavaScript syntax</a></li>

<li><a href="JavaScript_stack" title="JavaScript stack">JavaScript stack</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Debugger" title="Debugger">Debuggers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chrome_(browser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrome (browser)">Chrome DevTools</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a> Inspector</li>

<li><a href="Komodo_IDE" title="Komodo IDE">Komodo IDE</a></li>

<li><a href="Safari_(web_browser)" title="Safari (web browser)">Safari</a> Web Inspector</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Documentation_generator" title="Documentation generator">Documentation generators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="JSDoc" title="JSDoc">JSDoc</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Editors (<a href="Comparison_of_JavaScript-based_source_code_editors" title="Comparison of JavaScript-based source code editors">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cloud9_IDE" title="Cloud9 IDE">Cloud9 IDE</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="CodeMirror" title="CodeMirror">CodeMirror</a>

<ul><li><a href="Brackets_(text_editor)" title="Brackets (text editor)">Brackets</a></li>

<li><a href="Light_Table_(software)" title="Light Table (software)">Light Table</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="PhpStorm" class="mw-redirect" title="PhpStorm">PhpStorm</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Eclipse_projects#Top-level_sub-projects" title="List of Eclipse projects">Orion</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_Studio" title="Visual Studio">Visual Studio</a>

<ul><li><a href="Microsoft_Visual_Studio_Express" title="Microsoft Visual Studio Express">Visual Studio Express</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Visual_Studio_Code" title="Visual Studio Code">Visual Studio Code</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_Studio#Azure_DevOps_Services" title="Visual Studio">Visual Studio Team Services</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="JavaScript_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScript engine">Engines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_ECMAScript_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ECMAScript engines">List of ECMAScript engines</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_JavaScript-based_web_frameworks" title="Comparison of JavaScript-based web frameworks">Comparison of JavaScript frameworks</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_JavaScript_libraries" title="List of JavaScript libraries">List of JavaScript libraries</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related <a href="Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="AssemblyScript" title="AssemblyScript">AssemblyScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Cascading_Style_Sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Cascading Style Sheets">Cascading Style Sheets</a></li>

<li><a href="Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object Model">Document Object Model</a></li>

<li><a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a></li>

<li><a href="WebAuthn" title="WebAuthn">WebAuthn</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Package_manager" title="Package manager">Package managers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Module bundlers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Webpack" title="Webpack">Webpack</a></li>

<li><a href="Esbuild" title="Esbuild">esbuild</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Server-side_JavaScript" class="mw-redirect" title="Server-side JavaScript">Server-side</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_Server_Pages" title="Active Server Pages">Active Server Pages</a></li>

<li><a href="CommonJS" title="CommonJS">CommonJS</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Unit_testing" title="Unit testing">Unit testing</a> frameworks (<a href="List_of_unit_testing_frameworks#JavaScript" title="List of unit testing frameworks">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jasmine_(software)" title="Jasmine (software)">Jasmine</a></li>

<li><a href="Mocha_(JavaScript_framework)" title="Mocha (JavaScript framework)">Mocha</a></li>

<li><a href="QUnit" title="QUnit">QUnit</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Douglas_Crockford" title="Douglas Crockford">Douglas Crockford</a></li>

<li><a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Resig" title="John Resig">John Resig</a></li>

<li><a href="Jesse_James_Garrett" title="Jesse James Garrett">Jesse James Garrett</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="ECMAScript584" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="ECMAScript584" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ActionScript" title="ActionScript">ActionScript</a>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="JavaScript_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScript engine">engines</a></li>

<li><a href="JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a></li>

<li><a href="JScript_.NET" title="JScript .NET">JScript .NET</a></li>

<li><a href="QtScript" title="QtScript">QtScript</a></li>

<li><a href="TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a></li>

<li><a href="WMLScript" title="WMLScript">WMLScript</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_JavaScript_engines" title="List of JavaScript engines">Engines</a> (list)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Presto_(browser_engine)#ECMAScript_engines" title="Presto (browser engine)">Carakan</a></li>

<li><a href="Presto_(browser_engine)#ECMAScript_engines" title="Presto (browser engine)">Futhark</a></li>

<li>InScript</li>

<li><a href="WebKit#JavaScriptCore" title="WebKit">JavaScriptCore</a></li>

<li><a href="JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Presto_(browser_engine)#ECMAScript_engines" title="Presto (browser engine)">Linear B</a></li>

<li><a href="QtScript" title="QtScript">QtScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhino_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Rhino (JavaScript engine)">Rhino</a></li>

<li><a href="SpiderMonkey" title="SpiderMonkey">SpiderMonkey</a>

<ul><li><a href="SpiderMonkey#TraceMonkey" title="SpiderMonkey">TraceMonkey</a></li>

<li><a href="SpiderMonkey#JägerMonkey" title="SpiderMonkey">JägerMonkey</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tamarin_(software)" title="Tamarin (software)">Tamarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Chakra_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Chakra (JavaScript engine)">ChakraCore</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chakra_(JScript_engine)" title="Chakra (JScript engine)">Chakra</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="JScript_.NET" title="JScript .NET">JScript .NET</a></li>

<li><a href="Nashorn_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Nashorn (JavaScript engine)">Nashorn</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Software_framework" title="Software framework">Frameworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Client-side_JavaScript" class="mw-redirect" title="Client-side JavaScript">Client-side</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Google_Web_Toolkit" title="Google Web Toolkit">Google Web Toolkit</a></li>

<li><a href="JQuery" title="JQuery">jQuery</a></li>

<li><a href="Lively_Kernel" title="Lively Kernel">Lively Kernel</a></li>

<li>midori</li>

<li><a href="MochiKit" title="MochiKit">MochiKit</a></li>

<li><a href="MooTools" title="MooTools">MooTools</a></li>

<li><a href="Prototype_JavaScript_Framework" title="Prototype JavaScript Framework">Prototype</a></li>

<li><a href="Qooxdoo" title="Qooxdoo">qooxdoo</a></li>

<li><a href="SproutCore" title="SproutCore">SproutCore</a></li>

<li>Wakanda Framework</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Server-side_JavaScript" class="mw-redirect" title="Server-side JavaScript">Server-side</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Jaxer" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaxer">Jaxer</a></li>

<li><a href="AppJet" title="AppJet">AppJet</a></li>

<li>WakandaDB</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Cappuccino</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="JavaScript_library" title="JavaScript library">Libraries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Backbone.js" title="Backbone.js">Backbone.js</a></li>

<li><a href="SWFObject" title="SWFObject">SWFObject</a></li>

<li><a href="Underscore.js" title="Underscore.js">Underscore.js</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a></li>

<li><a href="Douglas_Crockford" title="Douglas Crockford">Douglas Crockford</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Resig" title="John Resig">John Resig</a></li>

<li>Scott Isaacs</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dynamic_HTML" title="Dynamic HTML">DHTML</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecma_International" title="Ecma International">Ecma International</a></li>

<li><a href="JSDoc" title="JSDoc">JSDoc</a></li>

<li><a href="JSHint" title="JSHint">JSHint</a></li>

<li><a href="JSLint" title="JSLint">JSLint</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_(JavaScript_conformance_test)" title="Sputnik (JavaScript conformance test)">Sputnik</a></li>

<li><a href="Browser_speed_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Browser speed test">SunSpider</a></li>

<li><a href="Asynchronous_module_definition" title="Asynchronous module definition">Asynchronous module definition</a></li>

<li><a href="CommonJS" title="CommonJS">CommonJS</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> Lists: <a href="List_of_JavaScript_libraries" title="List of JavaScript libraries">JavaScript libraries</a> • <a href="List_of_Ajax_frameworks#JavaScript" title="List of Ajax frameworks">Ajax frameworks</a> • <a href="List_of_server-side_JavaScript_implementations" title="List of server-side JavaScript implementations">Server-side JavaScript</a> Comparison: <a href="Comparison_of_JavaScript-based_web_frameworks" title="Comparison of JavaScript-based web frameworks">JavaScript web frameworks</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Web_browsers181" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Web_browsers181" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">Web browsers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="*_Features_*_standards_*_protocols181" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">

<ul><li>Features</li>

<li>standards</li>

<li>protocols</li></ul>

</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bookmark_(digital)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bookmark (digital)">Bookmarks</a></li>

<li><a href="Browser_extension" title="Browser extension">Extensions</a></li>

<li><a href="Private_browsing" title="Private browsing">Privacy mode</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Web_standards" title="Web standards">Web standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li>

<ul><li><a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_storage" title="Web storage">Web storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Indexed_Database_API" title="Indexed Database API">IndexedDB</a></li>

<li><a href="WebGL" title="WebGL">WebGL</a></li>

<li><a href="WebGPU" title="WebGPU">WebGPU</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protocols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="HTTPS" title="HTTPS">Encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="HTTP_cookie" title="HTTP cookie">Cookies</a>

<ul><li><a href="Third-party_cookies" title="Third-party cookies">third-party</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="WebRTC" title="WebRTC">WebRTC</a></li>

<li><a href="WebSocket" title="WebSocket">WebSocket</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Active181" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Active</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Blink_(browser_engine)" title="Blink (browser engine)">Blink</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Google Chrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Avast_Secure_Browser" title="Avast Secure Browser">Avast</a></li>

<li><a href="Comodo_Dragon" title="Comodo Dragon">Comodo</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecosia#Ecosia_Browser" title="Ecosia">Ecosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Huawei_Mobile_Services" title="Huawei Mobile Services">Huawei</a></li>

<li><a href="Maxthon" title="Maxthon">Maxthon</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Edge" title="Microsoft Edge">Microsoft Edge</a></li>

<li><a href="Opera_(web_browser)" title="Opera (web browser)">Opera</a> (<a href="Opera_Mobile" title="Opera Mobile">Mobile</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Puffin_Browser" title="Puffin Browser">Puffin </a></li>

<li><a href="Samsung_Internet" title="Samsung Internet">Samsung</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleipnir_(web_browser)" title="Sleipnir (web browser)">Sleipnir</a></li>

<li><a href="SRWare_Iron" title="SRWare Iron">SRWare</a></li>

<li><a href="Vivaldi_(web_browser)" title="Vivaldi (web browser)">Vivaldi</a></li>

<li><a href="Naver_Whale" title="Naver Whale">Whale</a></li>

<li><a href="Yandex_Browser" title="Yandex Browser">Yandex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">FOSS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chromium_(web_browser)" title="Chromium (web browser)">Chromium</a></li>

<li><a href="Brave_(web_browser)" title="Brave (web browser)">Brave</a></li>

<li><a href="Dooble" title="Dooble">Dooble</a></li>

<li><a href="Falkon" title="Falkon">Falkon</a></li>

<li><a href="Otter_Browser" title="Otter Browser">Otter</a></li>

<li><a href="Supermium" title="Supermium">Supermium</a></li>

<li><a href="Ungoogled-chromium" title="Ungoogled-chromium">ungoogled</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Gecko_(software)" title="Gecko (software)">Gecko</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a></li>

<li><a href="Floorp" title="Floorp">Floorp</a></li>

<li><a href="GNU_IceCat" title="GNU IceCat">GNU IceCat</a></li>

<li><a href="LibreWolf" title="LibreWolf">LibreWolf</a></li>

<li><a href="Midori_(web_browser)" title="Midori (web browser)">Midori</a></li>

<li><a href="SlimBrowser" title="SlimBrowser">SlimBrowser</a></li>

<li>Gecko <a href="Fork_(software_development)" title="Fork (software development)">forks</a>

<ul><li><a href="Basilisk_(web_browser)" title="Basilisk (web browser)">Basilisk</a></li>

<li><a href="K-Meleon" title="K-Meleon">K-Meleon</a></li>

<li><a href="SeaMonkey" title="SeaMonkey">SeaMonkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Waterfox" title="Waterfox">Waterfox</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="WebKit" title="WebKit">WebKit</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Safari_(web_browser)" title="Safari (web browser)">Safari</a></li>

<li><a href="GNOME_Web" title="GNOME Web">GNOME Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Kagi_(search_engine)#Orion_Browser" title="Kagi (search engine)">Orion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multi-<a href="Browser_engine" title="Browser engine">engine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="DuckDuckGo_Private_Browser" title="DuckDuckGo Private Browser">DuckDuckGo</a></li>

<li><a href="Konqueror" title="Konqueror">Konqueror</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunascape" title="Lunascape">Lunascape</a></li>

<li><a href="NetFront" title="NetFront">NetFront</a></li>

<li><a href="Qutebrowser" title="Qutebrowser">qutebrowser</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Dillo" title="Dillo">Dillo</a></li>

<li><a href="Ladybird_(web_browser)" title="Ladybird (web browser)">Ladybird</a></li>

<li><a href="Links_(web_browser)" title="Links (web browser)">Links</a></li>

<li><a href="NetSurf" title="NetSurf">NetSurf</a></li>

<li><a href="Opera_Mini" title="Opera Mini">Opera Mini</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Discontinued181" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Discontinued</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Blink_(browser_engine)" title="Blink (browser engine)">Blink</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beaker_(web_browser)" title="Beaker (web browser)">Beaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Citrio" title="Citrio">Citrio</a></li>

<li><a href="Flock_(web_browser)" title="Flock (web browser)">Flock</a></li>

<li><a href="Redcore" title="Redcore">Redcore</a></li>

<li><a href="Rockmelt" title="Rockmelt">Rockmelt</a></li>

<li><a href="SalamWeb" title="SalamWeb">SalamWeb</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_(search_engine)#Browser" title="Sputnik (search engine)">Sputnik</a></li>

<li><a href="Torch_(web_browser)" title="Torch (web browser)">Torch</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Gecko_(software)" title="Gecko (software)">Gecko</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beonex_Communicator" title="Beonex Communicator">Beonex</a></li>

<li><a href="Camino_(web_browser)" title="Camino (web browser)">Camino</a></li>

<li><a href="Classilla" title="Classilla">Classilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Conkeror" title="Conkeror">Conkeror</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox_Lite" title="Firefox Lite">Firefox Lite</a></li>

<li><a href="Galeon" title="Galeon">Galeon</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghostzilla" title="Ghostzilla">Ghostzilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Comodo_IceDragon" title="Comodo IceDragon">IceDragon</a></li>

<li><a href="Kazehakase" title="Kazehakase">Kazehakase</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Lotus_Symphony" title="IBM Lotus Symphony">Lotus</a></li>

<li><a href="MicroB" title="MicroB">MicroB</a></li>

<li><a href="Minimo" title="Minimo">Minimo</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Application_Suite" title="Mozilla Application Suite">Mozilla suite</a></li>

<li><a href="PirateBrowser" title="PirateBrowser">PirateBrowser</a></li>

<li><a href="Kirix_Strata" title="Kirix Strata">Strata</a></li>

<li><a href="Swiftfox" title="Swiftfox">Swiftfox</a></li>

<li><a href="Swiftweasel" title="Swiftweasel">Swiftweasel</a></li>

<li><a href="TenFourFox" class="mw-redirect" title="TenFourFox">TenFourFox</a></li>

<li><a href="Timberwolf_(web_browser)" title="Timberwolf (web browser)">Timberwolf</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Trident_(software)" title="Trident (software)">MSHTML</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a></li>

<li><a href="Deepnet_Explorer" title="Deepnet Explorer">Deepnet</a></li>

<li><a href="GreenBrowser" title="GreenBrowser">GreenBrowser</a></li>

<li><a href="MediaBrowser" title="MediaBrowser">MediaBrowser</a></li>

<li><a href="MSN_Dial-Up_Internet_Access#MSN_Explorer" title="MSN Dial-Up Internet Access">MSN Explorer</a></li>

<li><a href="MSN_Dial-Up_Internet_Access#MSN_2.0" title="MSN Dial-Up Internet Access">MSN Program Viewer</a></li>

<li><a href="NeoPlanet" title="NeoPlanet">NeoPlanet</a></li>

<li><a href="NetCaptor" title="NetCaptor">NetCaptor</a></li>

<li><a href="SpaceTime_(software)" title="SpaceTime (software)">SpaceTime</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Arora_(web_browser)" title="Arora (web browser)">Arora</a></li>

<li><a href="Dolphin_Browser" title="Dolphin Browser">Dolphin</a></li>

<li><a href="Fluid_(web_browser)" title="Fluid (web browser)">Fluid</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_TV_(smart_TV_platform)" class="mw-redirect" title="Google TV (smart TV platform)">Google TV</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercury_Browser" title="Mercury Browser">Mercury</a></li>

<li><a href="Nokia_Browser_for_Symbian" title="Nokia Browser for Symbian">Nokia Symbian</a></li>

<li><a href="OmniWeb" title="OmniWeb">OmniWeb</a></li>

<li><a href="Opera_Coast" title="Opera Coast">Opera Coast</a></li>

<li><a href="Origyn_Web_Browser" title="Origyn Web Browser">Origyn</a></li>

<li><a href="QtWeb" title="QtWeb">QtWeb</a></li>

<li><a href="Shiira" title="Shiira">Shiira</a></li>

<li><a href="Steel_(web_browser)" title="Steel (web browser)">Steel</a></li>

<li><a href="WebPositive" class="mw-redirect" title="WebPositive">WebPositive</a></li>

<li><a href="Xombrero" title="Xombrero">xombrero</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abaco_(web_browser)" title="Abaco (web browser)">abaco</a></li>

<li><a href="Amaya_(web_editor)" title="Amaya (web editor)">Amaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Arachne_(web_browser)" title="Arachne (web browser)">Arachne</a></li>

<li><a href="Arena_(web_browser)" title="Arena (web browser)">Arena</a></li>

<li><a href="Blazer_(web_browser)" title="Blazer (web browser)">Blazer</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Live_Labs_Deepfish" title="Microsoft Live Labs Deepfish">Deepfish</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Edge_Legacy" title="Microsoft Edge Legacy">Edge Legacy</a></li>

<li><a href="ELinks" title="ELinks">ELinks</a></li>

<li><a href="Gazelle_(web_browser)" title="Gazelle (web browser)">Gazelle</a></li>

<li><a href="HotJava" title="HotJava">HotJava</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_Home_Page_Reader" title="IBM Home Page Reader">IBM Home Page Reader</a></li>

<li><a href="IBM_WebExplorer" title="IBM WebExplorer">IBM WebExplorer</a></li>

<li><a href="IBrowse" title="IBrowse">IBrowse</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet_Explorer_for_Mac" title="Internet Explorer for Mac">Internet Explorer for Mac</a></li>

<li><a href="KidZui" title="KidZui">KidZui</a></li>

<li><a href="Mosaic_(web_browser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic (web browser)">Mosaic</a></li>

<li><a href="NetPositive" class="mw-redirect" title="NetPositive">NetPositive</a></li>

<li><a href="Netscape_(web_browser)" title="Netscape (web browser)">Netscape</a></li>

<li><a href="Skweezer" title="Skweezer">Skweezer</a></li>

<li><a href="Skyfire_(company)" title="Skyfire (company)">Skyfire</a></li>

<li><a href="ThunderHawk" title="ThunderHawk">ThunderHawk</a></li>

<li><a href="Vision_Mobile_Browser" title="Vision Mobile Browser">Vision</a></li>

<li><a href="WinWAP" title="WinWAP">WinWAP</a></li>

<li><a href="WorldWideWeb" title="WorldWideWeb">WorldWideWeb</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_web_browsers" title="Comparison of web browsers">Comparison</a></li>

<li>Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Node.js47" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Node.js47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Platform</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="CommonJS" title="CommonJS">CommonJS</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frameworks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="MongoDB" title="MongoDB">MongoDB</a></li>

<li><a href="Express.js" title="Express.js">Express.js</a></li>

<li><a href="AngularJS" title="AngularJS">AngularJS</a>/<a href="Angular_(web_framework)" title="Angular (web framework)">Angular</a></li></ul></li>

<li>MEEN (substituted with <a href="Ember.js" title="Ember.js">Ember.js</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Backbone.js" title="Backbone.js">Backbone.js</a></li>

<li><a href="Fastify" title="Fastify">Fastify</a></li>

<li><a href="Meteor_(web_framework)" title="Meteor (web framework)">Meteor</a></li>

<li><a href="Sails.js" title="Sails.js">Sails.js</a> (uses Express.js)</li>

<li><a href="NestJS" title="NestJS">NestJS</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Libraries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lodash" title="Lodash">Lodash</a></li>

<li><a href="Underscore.js" title="Underscore.js">Underscore.js</a></li>

<li><a href="React.js" class="mw-redirect" title="React.js">React.js</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="CoffeeScript" title="CoffeeScript">CoffeeScript</a></li>

<li><a href="TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a></li>

<li><a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a>

<ul><li><a href="AssemblyScript" title="AssemblyScript">AssemblyScript</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Programming_languages625" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Programming_languages625" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a>

<ul><li><a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">classic</a></li>

<li><a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li>

<li><a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a>

<ul><li><a href="Elixir_(programming_language)" title="Elixir (programming language)">Elixir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li><a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li>

<li><a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a></li>

<li><a href="Kotlin_(programming_language)" title="Kotlin (programming language)">Kotlin</a></li>

<li><a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a></li>

<li><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a></li>

<li><a href="Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Lists: <a href="List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">Alphabetical</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">Categorical</a></li>

<li><a href="Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2005#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1500" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2005#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1500" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/982071">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4420180-1">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh96004880">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12549978q">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12549978q">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph117651&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX542465">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007551493605171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/034781870">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elmcip.net/node/10258">ELMCIP</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/364c16f5-7abc-42bb-aaa6-aefc12a5ffde">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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